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Yoga derives from prehistoric roots, and develops out of Ancient
Indian asceticism (tapas).
Yoga as a Hindu philosophy ("darshana") is first expounded in the
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. This earliest school of Yoga
retrospectively came to be known by the retronym Raja Yoga to
distinguish it from later schools.
Indus Valley civilization (ca. 3300–1700 BC)
A seal from the Indus Valley Civilization, showing a figure in
meditation posture.Several steatite seals discovered at Indus Valley
Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BC) sites depict figures in a yoga- or
meditation-like posture, "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a
precursor of yoga", according to Indus archeologist Gregory Possehl.[1]
He points out sixteen specific "yogi glyptics"[2] in the corpus of
Mature Harappan artifacts that suggest Harappan devotion to "ritual
discipline and concentration", and that the yoga pose "may have been
used by deities and humans alike."[3] Some type of connection
between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation
practices is supported by many other scholars.[4]
Karel Werner writes that "Archeological discoveries allow us
therefore to speculate with some justification that a wide range of
Yoga activities was already known to the people of pre-Aryan
India."[5] A seal recently (2008) uncovered in the Cholistan desert
was described by Dr. Farzand Masih, Punjab University Archaeology
Department Chairman, as depicting a "yogi".[6] Thomas McEvilley
writes that "The six mysterious Indus Valley seal images...all
without exception show figures in a position known in hatha yoga as
mulabhandasana or possibly the closely related utkatasana or baddha
konasana...."[7]
The most widely known of these images was named the "Pashupati
seal"[8] by its discoverer, John Marshall, who believed that it
represented a "proto-Shiva" figure.[9] Many modern authorities
discount the idea that this "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit
paśupati)[10] represents a Shiva or Rudra figure.[11][12] Gavin
Flood characterizes the Shiva or Rudra view as "speculative", and
goes on to say that it is not clear from the 'Pashupati' seal that
the figure is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is
intended to represent a human figure.[9][13]
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Upanishadic (ca. 800-100 BC)
While the most ancient mystic practices are vaguely hinted at in the
Vedas, the ascetic practices (tapas) are referenced in the Brāhmaṇas
(900 BCE and 500 BCE),[14] early commentaries on the Vedas.
In the Upanishads, an early reference to meditation is made in
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,[14] one of the earliest Upanishads
(approx. 900 BCE). The main textual sources for the evolving concept
of Yoga are the middle Upanishads, (ca. 400 BCE), the Mahabharata
(5th c. BCE) including the Bhagavad Gita (ca. 200 BCE), and the Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali (200 BCE-300 CE).
In the Maitrayaniya Upanishad (ca. 200-300 BCE) yoga surfaces as:
An early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad, the earliest Upanishad (approx. 900 BCE).[15] Yoga is
discussed quite frequently in the Upanishads, many of which predate
Patanjali's Sutras.[16] The actual term "yoga" first occurs in the
Katha Upanishad.[17] A Rig Vedic cosmogonic myth declares an ascetic
with "folded legs, soles turned upwards" as per his name.[18]
[edit] Modern growth of yoga in the West
Currently, it is estimated that there are about 30 million people in
America, and 1 million people in the United Kingdom practicing hatha
yoga.
Yoga (in the West) is an exercise-related and posture-related
technique that involves gentle stretching, breath control and
meditation. Various different forms of yoga, including Hatha (most
common in the UK), Ashtanga and Iyengar exist. Yoga has been
combined with various other exercise techniques to produce “fusion”
classes, for example Yogalates, Body Balancing and Body
Conditioning[19].
[edit] Legal matters
Bikram Choudury was sued in U.S. Federal Court by a collective of
yoga studios that challenged his interpretation of copyright law.
The lawsuit resulted in a confidential settlement agreement.
There have been many attempts to introduce regulatory standards, and
various teacher training certification schemes exist.
Consumers face extensive and sometimes, conflicting information
about what Yoga really is and what credentials, (if any) they should
seek in a Yoga instructor.
In the UK, marketers wanting to make claims about improving
strength, endurance, co-ordination or flexibility should hold
"robust evidence"[20].
[edit] Notes
^ Possehl, Gregory (2003). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary
Perspective. AltaMira Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0759101722.
^ Possehl (2003), p. 145
^ Possehl (2003), p. 144
^ Jonathan Mark Kenoyer describes one figure as "seated in yogic
position". Around the Indus in 90 Slides by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer.
Heinrich Zimmer describes one seal as "seated like a yogi". Zimmer,
Heinrich (1972). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization.
Princeton University Press, New Ed edition. p. 168. ISBN
978-0691017785.
^ Werner, Karel (1998). Yoga and Indian Philosophy. Motilal
Banarsidass Publ.. p. 103. ISBN 9788120816091. http://books.google.com/books?id=c6b3lH0-OekC&pg=PA103.
.
^ Rare objects discovery points to ruins treasure
^ McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The shape of ancient thought. Allworth
Communications. pp. 219–220. ISBN 9781581152036. http://books.google.com/books?id=Vpqr1vNWQhUC&pg=PA219.
^ Marshall, Sir John, Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization,
London 1931
^ a b Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
^ For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p.
312.
^ Keay, p. 14.
^ Possehl (2003), p. 143
^ Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.
^ a b Flood, p. 94.
^ "...which states that, having become calm and concentrated, one
perceives the self (atman), within oneself." Flood, pp. 94-95.
^ P. 132 A Student's Guide to A2 Religious Studies for the OCR
Specification By Michael Wilcockson
^ Flood, p. 95.
^ P. 164 The Doctrine of the Upaniṣads and the Early Buddhism By
Hermann Oldenberg, Shridhar B. Shrotri
^ Committee of Advertising Practice, AdviceOnline: Therapies: Yoga
^ Extracts from the UK Advertising Standards Authority, (ASA)'s
Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP), British Code of
Advertising, Sales Promotion and Direct Marketing (11th Edition)
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