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History
Main article: History of yoga
The Verdic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, while ascetic
practices ("tapas") are referenced in the Brāhmaṇas (900 to 500
BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas.[18] Several seals discovered
at Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BCE) sites in Pakistan
depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation
pose, showing "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor
of yoga," according to archaeologist Gregory Possehl.[19] Some type
of connection between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and
meditation practices is speculated upon by many scholars, though
there is no conclusive evidence.[20]
Techniques for experiencing higher states of consciousness in
meditation were developed by the shramanic traditions and in the
Upanishadic tradition.[21]
While there is no clear evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist
early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation
originated in the Brahminic tradition, based on strong parallels
between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals
of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist
texts.[22] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.[23] Having
argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also
reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta
contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as
the late Rg Vedic period.[22]
The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest texts describing
meditation techniques.[24] They describe meditative practices and
states that existed before the Buddha, as well as those first
developed within Buddhism.[25] In Hindu literature, the term "yoga"
first occurs in the Katha Upanishad, where it refers to control of
the senses and the cessation of mental activity leading to a supreme
state.[26] Important textual sources for the evolving concept of
Yoga are the middle Upanishads, (ca. 400 BCE), the Mahabharata
including the Bhagavad Gita (ca. 200 BCE), and the Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali (150 BCE).
See also: Hinduism and Asana
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
In Hindu philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox
philosophical schools.[27][28] The Yoga philosophical system is
closely allied with the Samkhya school.[29] The Yoga school as
expounded by the sage Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and
metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by
the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five
elements of reality.[30][31] The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya
were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were
in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with
and Samkhya without a Lord...."[32] The intimate relationship
between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:
These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a
single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition
of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing
their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage ("bandha"), and
describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release
("mokṣa"), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the
process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques
for the gaining of release, or "isolation-integration" ("kaivalya").[33]
Patanjali is widely regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga
philosophy.[34] Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a
system for control of the mind.[35] Patanjali defines the word
"yoga" in his second sutra, which is the definitional sutra for his
entire work:
योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध:
(yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ)
- Yoga Sutras 1.2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms.
I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of
the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)".[36] The use of the
word nirodhaḥ in the opening definition of yoga is an example of the
important role that Buddhist technical terminology and concepts play
in the Yoga Sutra; this role suggests that Patanjali was aware of
Buddhist ideas and wove them into his system.[37] Swami Vivekananda
translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta)
from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[38]
A sculpture of a Hindu yogi in the Birla Mandir, DelhiPatanjali's
writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga
Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from
the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic of
practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs
are:
Yama (The five "abstentions"): non-violence, non-lying,
non-covetousness, non-sensuality, and non-possessiveness.
Niyama (The five "observances"): purity, contentment, austerity,
study, and surrender to god.
Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to
the seated position used for meditation.
Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to restrain
or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.
Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from
external objects.
Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the
object of meditation.
Samādhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of
meditation.
In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal
the experienced diversity of the world to be illusion. The everyday
world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of
one of many individual selves discovering itself; there is no single
universal self shared by all persons.[39]
Yoga and Samkhya
Main article: Samkhya
Patanjali systematized the conceptions of Yoga and set them forth on
the background of the metaphysics of Samkhya, which he assumed with
slight variations. In the early works, the Yoga principles appear
along with the Samkhya ideas. Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras,
also called the “Samkhyapravacanabhasya,” brings out the intimate
relation between the two systems.[40]
Yoga agrees with the essential metaphysics of Samkhya, but differs
from it in that while Samkhya holds that knowledge is the means of
liberation, Yoga is a system of active striving, mental discipline,
and dutiful action. Yoga also introduces the conception of God.
Sometimes Patanjali's system is referred to as “Seshvara Samkhya” in
contradistinction to Kapila's "Nirivara Samkhya." [41]
Bhagavad Gita
Main article: Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga"
extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch.
6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,[42]
it introduces three prominent types of yoga:[43]
Karma yoga: The yoga of action,
Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion,
Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.
Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three
sections, with the first six chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the
middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana
(knowledge).[44] Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to
each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.[45]
Hatha Yoga
Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika
Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by Yogi
Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century
India. Hatha Yoga differs substantially from the Raja Yoga of
Patanjali in that it focuses on "shatkarma," the purification of the
physical body as leading to the purification of the mind ("ha"), and
"prana," or vital energy (tha).[46][47] Compared to the seated
asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja yoga,[48]
it marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body
'postures' now in popular usage [49] and, along with its many modern
variations, is the style that many people associate with the word
"Yoga" today.[50]
Modern, Westernised Yoga
In the West, the term "yoga" is typically associated with Hatha Yoga
and its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise.[51]
Yoga practices in other traditions
Buddhism
Main article: Buddhism and Hinduism#Meditation
The Buddha depicted in yogic meditation, Kamakura, JapanEarly
Buddhism incorporated meditative absorption states.[52] The most
ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early
sermons of the Buddha.[53] One key innovative teaching of the Buddha
was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating
cognition.[54] The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the
yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. Meditative
states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the
highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining a
complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must
take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful
awareness.[55]
The Buddha also departed from earlier yogic thought in discarding
the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.[56] Liberation
for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the realization at death
of a nondual meditative state anticipated in life. In fact, old
Brahminic metaphors for the liberation at death of the yogic adept
("becoming cool," "going out") were given a new meaning by the
Buddha; their point of reference became the sage who is liberated in
life.[57]
See also: Pranayama#Buddhism
Yogacara Buddhism
Yogacara (Sanskrit: "yoga practice"[58]), also spelled yogāchāra, is
a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during
the 4th to 5th centuries. Yogacara received the name as it provided
a "yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the
path of the bodhisattva.[59] The Yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a
way to reach enlightenment.[60]
Ch'an (Seon/Zen) Buddhism
A Falun Gong practitioner depicted in yogic meditation in the Lotus
positionZen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana"
via the Chinese "ch'an"[61]) is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The
Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with
Yoga.[52] In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the two
schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.[62] This
phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of
meditation has some of its roots in yogic practices.[63] Certain
essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in
general and for Zen in particular.[64]
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism
Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, the
path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanas, or vehicles,
which are said to be increasingly profound.[65] The last six are
described as "yoga yanas": "Kriya yoga," "Upa yoga," "Yoga yana," "Mahā
yoga," "Anu yoga" and the ultimate practice, "Ati yoga." [66] The
Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and
Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and
Atiyoga.[67]
Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures
practiced with breath and heart rhythm. The Nyingma tradition also
practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes
breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise
dynamic movements to centre the practitioner.[68] The body postures
of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai
Lama's summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan
Yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caṇḍalī (Tib. "tummo"), the
generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation
of the whole of Tibetan Yoga." [69] Chang also claims that Tibetan
Yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana
and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.
Jainism
Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic meditation in the Kayotsarga posture.
Kevala Jñāna of Mahavira in "mulabandhasana" postureAccording to "Tattvarthasutra,"
2nd century CE Jain text, "Yoga," is the sum total of all the
activities of mind, speech and body.[4] Umasvati calls yoga the
cause of "asrava" or karmic influx [70] as well as one of the
essentials—samyak caritra"—in the path to liberation.[70] In his "Niyamasara,"
Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to
liberation—as the highest form of devotion.[71] Acarya Haribhadra
and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12
minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists
like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system
of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion.[72]
Dr. Heinrich Zimmer contended that the yoga system had pre-Aryan
origins that did not accept the authority of the Vedas, and hence
had to be reckoned as one of the heterodox doctrines similar to
Jainism.[73] Jain iconography depicts Jain Tirthankara's meditation
in "Padmasana" or "Kayotsarga" yogic poses. Mahavira was said to
have achieved "Kevala Jnana" "enlightenment" siting in "mulabandhasana"
('root-lock') position, which is first mentioned in the Acaranga
Sutra and later in Kalpasutra [74]
The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism,
indicating a strong influence of Jainism.[75][76] This mutual
influence between the Yoga philosophy and Jainism is admitted by the
author Vivian Worthington who writes: "Yoga fully acknowledges its
debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of
yoga part and parcel of life." [77] The Indus valley seals and
iconography also provide a reasonable evidence of the existence of a
proto-yogic tradition akin to Jainism.[78]
More specifically, scholars and archaeologists have remarked on
close similarities in the yogic and meditative postures depicted in
the seals with those of various Tirthankaras: the "kayotsarga"
posture of Rsabha and the "mulabandhasana" of Mahavira along with
seals depicting meditative figure flaked by upright serpents bearing
similarities to iconography of Parsva. All these are indicative of
not only links between Indus Valley Civilisation and Jainism, but
also show the contribution of Jainism to various yogic
practices.[79]
References in Jain canons and literature
Earliest of Jain canonical literature like Acarangasutra and texts
like Niyamasara, Tattvarthasutra etc. had many references on yoga as
a way of life for laymen and ascetics. The later texts that further
elaborated on the Jain concept of yoga are as follows:
Pujyapada (5th century CE)
Ishtopadesh
Acarya Haribhadra Suri(8th century CE)
Yogabindu
Yogadristisamuccaya
Yogasataka
Yogavimisika
Acarya Joindu (8th century CE)
Yogasara
Acarya Hemacandra (11th century CE)
Yogasastra
Acarya Amitagati (11th century CE)
Yogasaraprabhrta
Views of Abrahamic religions
Islam
The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian
yogic practises, where they adapted both physical postures (asanas)
and breath control (pranayama).[80] The ancient Indian yogic text
Amritakunda ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and
Persian as early as the 11th century. Several other yogic texts were
appropriated by Sufi tradition, but typically the texts juxtapose
yoga materials alongside Sufi practices without any real attempt at
integration or synthesis. Yoga became known to Indian Sufis
gradually over time, but engagement with yoga is not found at the
historical beginnings of the tradition.[81]
Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally
non-binding, against Muslims practicing yoga, saying it had elements
of "Hindu spiritual teachings" and that its practice was blasphemy
and is therefore haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized
the decision as "insulting."[82] Sisters in Islam, a women's rights
group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said that its
members would continue with their yoga classes.[83]
The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is
permissible, but prohibits the chanting of religious mantras,[84]
and states that teachings such as the uniting of a human with God is
not consistent with Islamic philosophy.[85] In a similar vein, the
Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa
banning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hindu elements"[86]
These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband,
a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.[87]
In May 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs,
Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted personal development techniques such as
yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism. His
comments were made in the context of yoga possibly competing with
and eroding participation in Islamic practice.[88]
The only sect of the Islam community that has successfully
incorporated yoga into its practice is the Jogi Faqir, whose
followers are Muslim converts from the Hindu Jogicaste.
Christianity
Main articles: A Christian reflection on the New Age and Aspects of
Christian meditation
The Roman Catholic Church, and some other Christian organizations
have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern
and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.[89][90]
In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of
Christian meditation and "A Christian reflection on the New Age,"
that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003
document was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican's
position.[91] The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical
aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and
that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to
psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations." Such
concerns can be traced to the early days of Christianity, when the
church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through
faith but through a mystical inner knowledge.[92]
The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be
enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and
cultures"[93] but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit
between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian
beliefs about ultimate reality."[92] The Rev. John Wijngaards points
out the long Judaic and Christian histories of absorbing elements
from surrounding religions. He notes that the absence of any intense
experience of God's power has sent some Christians eastward. Many
Roman Catholics now bring elements of Yoga, Buddhism, and Hinduism
into their spiritual practices.[92]
Some fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga practice
to be incoherent to their religious background and therefore a
non-Christian religious practice. It is also considered a part of
the New Age movement and therefore inconsistent with
Christianity.[94]
Tantra
Main article: Tantra
Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its
practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality
in which they live. Through Tantric practice, an individual
perceives reality as maya, illusion, and the individual achieves
liberation from it.[95] Both Tantra & Yoga offer paths that relieve
a person from depending on the world. Where Yoga relies on
progressive restriction of inputs from outside; Tantra relies on
transmutation of all external inputs so that one is no longer
dependent on them, but can take them or leave them at will. They
both make a person independent.[96] This particular path to
salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to
those practices of Indian religions, such as yoga, meditation, and
social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent
withdrawal from social relationships and modes.[95]
As Robert Svoboda attempts to summarize the three major paths of the
Vedic knowledge, he exclaims:
Because every embodied individual is composed of a body, a mind and
a spirit, the ancient Rishis of India who developed the Science of
Life organized their wisdom into three bodies of knowledge: Ayurveda,
which deals mainly with the physical body; Yoga, which deals mainly
with spirit; and Tantra, which is mainly concerned with the mind.
The philosophy of all three is identical; their manifestations
differ because of their differing emphases. Ayurveda is most
concerned with the physical basis of life, concentrating on its
harmony of mind and spirit. Yoga controls body and mind to enable
them to harmonize with spirit, and Tantra seeks to use the mind to
balance the demands of body and spirit.[96]
During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed
further in meditation technique, particularly chakra meditation.
This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind
of meditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis
elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate's previous
meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini Yoga for the
purpose of moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the
"heart", for meditation and worship.[97]
Goal of yoga
The goals of yoga are varied and range from improving health to
achieving Moksha.[42] Within the Hindu monist schools of Advaita
Vedanta, Shaivism and Jainism, the goal of yoga takes the form of
Moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle
of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a realization
of identity with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal
of yoga is variously described as entering the world of Brahma, as
Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman or Atman that pervades all
things.[98] For the bhakti schools of Vaishnavism, bhakti or service
to Svayam bhagavan itself may be the ultimate goal of the yoga
process, where the goal is to enjoy an eternal relationship with
Vishnu.[99]
References
Notes
^ For the uses of the word in Pāli literature, see Thomas William
Rhys Davids, William Stede, Pali-English dictionary. Reprint by
Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, page 558: [1]
^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford
University Press US, 1996, page 68.
^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in
Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005, pages 1-2.
^ a b Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of
Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102
^ "Yoga has five principal meanings: 1) yoga as a disciplined method
for attaining a goal; 2) yoga as techniques of controlling the body
and the mind; 3) yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of
philosophy (darśana); 4) yoga in connection with other words, such
as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring to traditions
specialising in particular techniques of yoga; 5) yoga as the goal
of yoga practice." Jacobsen, p. 4.
^ Monier-Williams includes "it is the second of the two Sāṃkhya
systems," and "abstraction practised as a system (as taught by
Patañjali and called the Yoga philosophy)" in his definitions of
"yoga."
^ Pandit Usharbudh Arya (1985). The philosophy of hatha yoga.
Himalayan Institute Press; 2nd ed.
^ Sri Swami Rama (2008) The royal path: Practical lessons on yoga.
Himalayan Institute Press; New Ed edition.
^ Swami Prabhavananda (Translator), Christopher Isherwood
(Translator), Patanjali (Author). (1996). Vedanta Press; How to know
god: The yoga aphorisms of Patanjali. New Ed edition.
^ Radhankrishan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin
Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, pp. 19-20.
^ For a list of 38 meanings of the word "yoga" see: Apte, p. 788.
^ For "yoga" as derived from the Sanskrit root "yuj" with meanings
of "to control", "to yoke, or "to unite" see: Flood (1996), p. 94.
^ For meaning 1. joining, uniting, and 2., union, junction,
combination see: Apte, p. 788.
^ For "mode, manner, means," see: Apte, p. 788, definition 5.
^ For "expedient, means in general," see: Apte, p. 788, definition
13.
^ For "yoga" as derived from the root "yujir samadhau" rather than "yujir
yoge," see Maehle p. 141
^ American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga."
Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the yoga philosophy; an ascetic."
^ Flood, p. 94.
^ Possehl (2003), pp. 144-145
^ See:
Jonathan Mark Kenoyer describes one figure as "seated in yogic
position." "Around the Indus in 90 Slides" by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
Karel Werner writes that "Archeological discoveries allow us
therefore to speculate with some justification that a wide range of
Yoga activities was already known to the people of pre-Aryan India."
Werner, Karel (1998). Yoga and Indian Philosophy. Motilal
Banarsidass Publ.. p. 103. ISBN 9788120816091. http://books.google.com/?id=c6b3lH0-OekC&pg=PA103.
.
Heinrich Zimmer describes one seal as "seated like a yogi." Zimmer,
Heinrich (1972). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization.
Princeton University Press, New Ed edition. p. 168. ISBN
978-0691017785.
Thomas McEvilley writes that "The six mysterious Indus Valley seal
images...all without exception show figures in a position known in
hatha yoga as mulabhandasana or possibly the closely related "utkatasana"
or "baddha konasana...." McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The shape of
ancient thought. Allworth Communications. pp. 219–220. ISBN
9781581152036. http://books.google.com/?id=Vpqr1vNWQhUC&pg=PA219.
Dr. Farzand Masih, Punjab University Archaeology Department
Chairman, describes a recently disovered seal as depicting a "yogi."
Rare objects discovery points to ruins treasure
Gavin Flood disputes the idea regarding one of the seals, the
so-called "Pashupati seal," writing that it isn't clear the figure
is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is intended to
represent a human figure. Flood, pp. 28-29.
Geoffrey Samuel, regarding the Pashupati seal, believes that we "do
not actually "know" how to interpret the figure, nor do we know what
he or she represent."Samuel, Geoffrey (2008). The Origins of Yoga
and Tantra. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780521695343.
http://books.google.com/?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C&pg=PA4.
^ Flood, pp. 94–95.
^ a b Alexander Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation."
Routledge, 2007, page 51.
^ Alexander Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation." Routledge,
2007, page 56.
^ Richard Gombrich, "Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from
Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo." Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988,
page 44.
^ Alexander Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation." Routledge,
2007, page 50.
^ Flood, p. 95. Scholars do not list the Katha Upanishad among those
that can be safely described as pre-Buddhist, see for example
Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie
der Wissenschaften und Literatur", [2]. Some have argued that it is
post-Buddhist, see for example Arvind Sharma's review of Hajime
Nakamura's "A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy," Philosophy East
and West, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), pp. 325-331. For a
comprehensive examination of the uses of the Pali word "yoga" in
early Buddhist texts, see Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede,
"Pali-English dictionary." Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,
1993, page 558: [3]. For the use of the word in the sense of
"spiritual practice" in the Dhammapada, see Gil Fronsdal, "The
Dhammapada", Shambhala, 2005, pages 56, 130.
^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the
grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents," and
pp. 453–487.
^ For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see:
Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
^ For close connection between Yoga philosophy and Samkhya, see:
Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
^ For Yoga acceptance of Samkhya concepts, but with addition of a
category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
^ For Yoga as accepting the 25 principles of Samkhya with the
addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p. 104.
^ Zimmer (1951), p. 280.
^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called
Yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.
^ For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection
to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras as a key work, see: Flood (1996), pp.
96–98.
^ For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition
of the modifications of the mind." See: Taimni, p. 6.
^ Barbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga
Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with
Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of
California Press, 1996, page 9.
^ Vivekanada, p. 115.
^ Stephen H. Phillips, "Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of
Realism and the Emergence of "New Logic." Open Court Publishing,
1995., pages 12–13.
^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin
Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 342.
^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin
Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.
^ a b Jacobsen, p. 10.
^ "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to
traditional yoga practice. The Gita also introduces the famous three
kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love' (bhakti)."
Flood, p. 96.
^ Gambhirananda, p. 16.
^ Jacobsen, p. 46.
^ Living Yoga: Creating a Life Practice - Page 42 by Christy
Turlington (page 42)
^ "Guiding Yoga's Light: Yoga Lessons for Yoga Teachers" - Page 10
by Nancy Gerstein
^ "Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath Body & Mind" -
Page 6 by Frank Jude Boccio
^ "Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice" by Mikel Burley
(page 16)
^ Feuerstein, Georg. (1996). "The Shambhala Guide to Yoga." Boston &
London: Shambhala Publications, Inc.
^ Title: A History of Modern Yoga. Author: Elizabeth De Michelis.
Published: Continuum, 2005
^ a b Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin,
James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)
^ Barbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga
Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, with
Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of
California Press, 1996, page 8.
^ Alexander Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation." Routledge,
2007, page 73
^ Alexander Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation." Routledge,
2007, page 105.
^ Alexander Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation." Routledge,
2007, page 96.
^ Alexander Wynne, "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation." Routledge,
2007, page 109.
^ Dan Lusthaus: "What is and isn't Yogacara"
^ Dan Lusthaus. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical
Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun.
Published 2002 (Routledge). ISBN 0700711864. pg 533
^ Simple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander
Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. Tuttle Publishing.
ISBN 0804831998
^ The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. Edited by
William Theodore de Bary. Pgs. 207-208. ISBN 0-394-71696-5 - "The
Meditation school, called 'Ch'an' in Chinese from the Sanskrit 'dhyāna,'
is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation 'Zen' "
^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin,
James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii)
^ "Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China)" by Heinrich Dumoulin,
James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13). Translated by James W.
Heisig, Paul F. Knitter. Contributor John McRae. Published 2005
World Wisdom. 387 pages. ISBN 0941532895 [Exact quote: "This
phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be
found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation."]
^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) by Heinrich Dumoulin,
James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13)
^ The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa.
Shambhala, 2001 ISBN 1570628955
^ "Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray,
Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. ISBN 157062917X pg 37-38
^ "Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray,
Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. ISBN 157062917X pg 57
^ "Yantra Yoga: The Tibetan Yoga of Movement" by Chogyal Namkhai
Norbu. Snow Lion, 2008. ISBN 1559393084
^ Chang, G.C.C. (1993). "Tibetan Yoga." New Jersey: Carol Publishing
Group. ISBN 0-8065-1453-1, p.7
^ a b Tattvarthasutra [6.2]
^ Niyamasara [134-40]
^ Zydenbos, Robert. "Jainism Today and Its Future." München: Manya
Verlag, 2006. p.66
^ Zimmer, Heinrich in (ed.) "Joseph Campbell: Philosophies of
India." New York: Princeton University Press, 1969 p.60
^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993) "Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and
Self in Asian Traditions." New York: SUNY Press, 1993 p. 7
^ Zydenbos (2006) p.66
^ "A History of Yoga" by Vivian Worthington (1982) Routledge ISBN
071009258X p. 29
^ Vivian Worthington (1982) p. 35
^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993), p.6
^ Chapple, Christopher.(1993), pp.6-9
^ Ernst, C. W. (2005). "Situating Sufism and Yoga". Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society 15: 15. doi:10.1017/S1356186304004675. edit
^ "Situating Sufism and Yoga" (PDF). http://www.unc.edu/~cernst/pdf/jras2.pdf.
Retrieved 2010-09-05.
^ Top Islamic body: Yoga is not for Muslims - CNN
^ "Mixed reactions to yoga ban". Thestar.com.my. 2008-11-23. http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/11/23/nation/2625368&sec=nation.
Retrieved 2010-09-05.
^ "Malaysia leader: Yoga for Muslims OK without chant," Associated
Press
^ "Laman Web Rasmi Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia". Islam.gov.my.
http://www.islam.gov.my/portal/lihat.php?jakim=3600. Retrieved
2010-09-05.
^ "Indonesian clerics issue yoga ban". BBC News. 2009-01-25. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7850079.stm.
Retrieved 2010-04-06.
^ "rediff.com: Why give yoga religious connotation: Deoband".
Specials.rediff.com. 2009-01-29. http://specials.rediff.com/news/2009/jan/29video-islam-allows-yoga-deoband.htm.
Retrieved 2010-09-05.
^ "It’s OK to stretch, just don’t believe". Hurriyet.com.tr. http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/domestic/11692086.asp?gid=244.
Retrieved 2010-09-05.
^ BBC News Feb 4, 2003 "Vatican sounds New Age alert"
^ "Catholicism in dialogue: conversations across traditions" by
Wayne Teasdale 2004 ISBN 0742531783 Page 74
^ Handbook of vocational psychology by W. Bruce Walsh, Mark Savickas
2005 ISBN 0805845178 page 358
^ a b c Steinfels, Peter (1990-01-07). "Trying to Reconcile the Ways
of the Vatican and the East". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE1D61531F934A35752C0A966958260&sec=&spon=.
Retrieved 2008-12-05.
^ 1989 Letter from Vatican to Bishops on Some Aspects of Christian
Meditation
^ Dr Ankerberg, John & Dr Weldon, John, Encyclopedia of New Age
Beliefs, Harvest House Publishers, 1996
^ a b Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a
Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published:
University of California Press, 1991. pp 313
^ a b Your ayurvedic constitution: Prakruti by Robert Svoboda
Motilal Banarsidass Publication,2005; ISBN 8120818407, 9788120818408
Google Books
^ Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional
Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University
of California Press, 1991. pp 317
^ Jacobsen, p. 9.
^ "Vaishnavism" Britannica Concise "Characterized by an emphasis on
bhakti, its goal is to escape the cycle of birth and death in order
to enjoy the presence of Vishnu."
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Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. (fourth
revised & enlarged edition).
Chang, G.C.C. (1993). Tibetan Yoga. New Jersey: Carol Publishing
Group. ISBN 0-8065-1453-1
Chapple, Christopher.(1993) Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self
in Asian Traditions. New York: SUNY Press, 1993 p. 7
Feuerstein, Georg (1996). The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed..
Boston & London: Shambhala Publications.
Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
Gambhirananda, Swami (1998). Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita:
With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama
Publication Department. ISBN 81-7505-194-9.
Jacobsen, Knut A. (Editor); Larson, Gerald James (Editor) (2005).
Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James
Larson. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004147578. (Studies in the
History of Religions, 110)
Maehle, Gregor (2006). Ashtanga Yoga: Practice & Philosophy. Novato:
New World Library. ISBN 978-1-57731-606-0.
Müller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and
Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.. ISBN
0-7661-4296-5. Reprint edition; Originally published under the title
of "The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy."
Possehl, Gregory (2003). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary
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Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian
Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
Taimni, I. K. (1961). The Science of Yoga. Adyar, India: The
Theosophical Publishing House. ISBN 81-7059-212-7.
Worthington, Vivian A History of Yoga 1982 Routledge ISBN 071009258X
Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies of India. New York, New York:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01758-1. Bollingen Series
XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell.
Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya
Verlag, 2006. p. 66
Further reading
Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An
Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint ed.). Calcutta:
University of Calcutta. ISBN 8129111950.
Donatelle, Rebecca J. Health: The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco:
Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
Harinanda, Swami. Yoga and The Portal. Jai Dee Marketing. ISBN
0978142950.
Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN
0-8021-3797-0.
Marshall, John (1931). Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization: Being
an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjodaro
Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922-27.
Delhi: Indological Book House.
Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
Mittra, Dharma Sri. Asanas: 608 Yoga Poses. 1st ed. California: New
World Library 2003.
Saraswati, swami satyananda. November 2002 (12th edition). "Asana
Pranayama Mudra Bandha" ISBN 81-86336-14-1
Schnäbele, Verena (2010). Yoga in Modern Society. Bewegungskultur,
Vol. 7. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac. ISBN 978-3-8300-5096-4.
Usharabudh, Arya Pandit. Philosophy of Hatha Yoga. 2nd ed.
Pennsylvania: Himalayan Institute Press 1977, 1985.
Vivekananda, Swami (1994). Raja Yoga. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama
Publication Department. ISBN 81-85301-16-6. 21st reprint edition.
Weber, Hans-Jörg L. (2007). Yogalehrende in Deutschland: eine
humangeographische Studie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von
netzwerktheoretischen, bildungs- und religionsgeographischen
Aspekten. Heidelberg: University of Heidelberg. http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/121/
Wood, Ernest (1959). Yoga. London, UK: Penguin Books.
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