Mumbai (Marathi: मुंबई, Mumbaī, IPA: [ˈmʊm.bəi] (help·info)), formerly called Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Mumbai, the most populous city in India, is the second most populous city in the world, with a population of approximately 14 million.^[1] Along with the neighbouring urban areas, which includes cities of Navi Mumbai and Thane, it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world.^[3] Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. As of 2009, Mumbai was named an Alpha world city.^[4] Mumbai is also the richest city in India.^[5]

The seven islands that came to constitute Bombay were home to communities of fishing colonies. For centuries, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to the Portuguese and subsequently to the British East India Company. During the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the British with large-scale civil engineering projects, aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass^[6], and emerged as a significant trading town. Economic and educational development characterised the city during the 19th century. It became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century. When India became independent in 1947, the city was incorporated into Bombay State. In 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. It was renamed Mumbai in 1995.^[7]

Mumbai is the commercial and entertainment centre of India, generating 5% of India's GDP,^[8] and accounting for 25% of industrial output, 40% of maritime trade, and 70% of capital transactions to India's economy.^[9] Mumbai is home to important financial institutions such as the Reserve Bank of India, the Bombay Stock Exchange, the National Stock Exchange of India and the corporate headquarters of numerous Indian companies and multinational corporations. The city also houses India's Hindi film and television industry, known as Bollywood. Mumbai's business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India and, in turn, make the city a potpourri of many communities and cultures.

Toponymy

The name Mumbai is an eponym, etymologically derived from Mumba or Maha-Amba—the name of the Koli goddess Mumbadevi—and Aai, "mother" in Marathi.^[10] The former name Bombay had its origins in the 16th century when the Portuguese arrived in the area and called it by various names, which finally took the written form Bombaim, still common in current Portuguese use.^[11] After the British gained possession of the city in the 17th century, it was believed to be anglicised to Bombay from the Portuguese Bombaim.^[12] The city was known as Mumbai or Mambai to Marathi speakers and as Bambai in Hindi, Persian and Urdu. It is sometimes still referred to by its older names, such as Kakamuchee and Galajunkja.^[13][14] The English name was officially changed to its Marathi pronunciation of Mumbai in November 1995.^[15] This came at the insistence of the Hindu nationalist Shiv Sena party, that had just won the Maharashtra state elections and mirrored similar name changes across the country. However, the city is still commonly referred to as Bombay by many of its residents and Indians from other regions as well.^[16]

A widespread explanation of the origin of the traditional English name Bombay holds that it was derived from a Portuguese name meaning "good bay". This is based on the fact that bom (masc.) is Portuguese for "good" whereas the English word "bay" is similar to the Portuguese baía (fem., bahia in old spelling). The normal Portuguese rendering of "good bay" would have been boa bahia rather than the grammatically incorrect bom bahia. However, it is possible to find the form baim (masc.) for "little bay" in 16th-century Portuguese.^[17] Portuguese scholar José Pedro Machado in his Dicionário Onomástico Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa (Portuguese Dictionary of Onomastics and Etymology), seems to reject the "Bom Bahia" hypothesis, asserting that Portuguese records mentioning the presence of a bay at the place led the English to assume that the noun (bahia, "bay") was an integral part of the Portuguese toponym, hence the English version Bombay, adapted from Portuguese.^[18]

Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai in 1507.^[19] The earliest Portuguese writer to refer to the city as Bombaim was Gaspar Correia in 1508, as recorded in his Lendas da Índia ("Legends of India").^[20][21] Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa mentions a reference to the city in a complex form, as Tana-Maiambu or Benamajambu in 1516.Tana appears to refer to the name of the adjoining town of Thane, and Maiambu seems to refer to Mumba-Devi, the Hindu goddess after which the place is named in Marathi.^[22] Other variations of the name recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries are, Mombayn (1525), Bombay (1538), Bombain (1552), Bombaym (1552), Monbaym (1554), Mombaim (1563), Mombaym (1644), Bambaye (1666), Bombaiim (1666), Bombeye (1676), and Boon Bay (1690).^[11][23]

. History

Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands: Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli, and Old Woman's Island (also known as Little Colaba).^[24] Pleistocene sediments found along the coastal areas around Kandivali in northern Mumbai by archaeologist Todd in 1939 suggest that these islands were inhabited since the Stone Age.^[25] It is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited. Perhaps at the beginning of the Common era (2000 years ago), or even possibly earlier, they came to be occupied by the Koli fishing community.^[26] In the third century BCE, the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire, during its expansion in the south, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha.^[27] The Kanheri Caves in Borivali were excavated in the mid-third century BCE,^[28] and served as an important centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient times.^[29] The city then was known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE.^[30]

Between the second century BCE and ninth century CE, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties: Satavahanas, Western Kshatrapas, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Kalachuris, Konkan Mauryas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas,^[31] before being ruled by the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260.^[32] Some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are, Jogeshwari Caves (between 520 to 525),^[33] Elephanta Caves (between the sixth to seventh century),^[34] Walkeshwar Temple (10th century),^[35] and Banganga Tank (12th century).^[36] King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the 12th or 13th century, and established his capital in Mahikawati (present day Mahim).^[37] The Pathare Prabhus, one of the earliest known settlers of the city, were brought to Mahikawati from Saurashtra in Gujarat by Bhimdev.^[38] The Muslim rulers of Gujarat annexed the islands in 1348.^[39] They were later governed by the Gujarat Sultanate from 1391 to 1534. The Sultanate's patronage led to the construction of many mosques, prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah in Worli, built in honour of the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431.^[40] From 1429 to 1431, the islands were a source of contention between the Gujarat Sultanate and the Bahamani Sultanate of Deccan.^[41][42] In 1493, Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Bahamani Sultanate attempted to conquer the islands, but was defeated.^[43]

The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid-16th century.^[44] Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun, Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with Portuguese settlers on 23 December 1534. According to the treaty, the seven islands of Bombay, the nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese. The territories were later surrendered on 25 October 1535.^[45] The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic religious orders in Bombay.^[46] Some of the oldest Catholic churches in the city such as the St. Michael's Church at Mahim (1534),^[47] St. John the Baptist Church at Andheri (1579),^[48] St. Andrew's Church at Bandra (1580),^[49] and Gloria Church at Byculla (1632),^[50] date from the Portuguese era. On 11 May 1661, the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal, placed the islands in possession of the British Empire, as part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.^[51] However, Salsette, Bassein, Mazagaon, Parel, Worli, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possession. From 1665 to 1666, the British managed to acquire Mahim, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala.^[52]

These islands were in turn leased to the British East India Company in 1668 for a sum of £10 per annum by the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668.^[53] The population quickly rose from 10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675.^[54] The islands were subsequently attacked by Yakut Khan, the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire, in October 1672,^[55] Rickloffe van Goen, the Governor-General of Dutch India on 20 February 1673,^[56] and Siddi admiral Sambal on 10 October 1673.^[55] In 1687, the British East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Bombay. The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency.^[57] Following the transfer, Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company's establishments in India.^[58] Towards the end of the 17th century, the islands again suffered incursions from Yakut Khan in 1689–90.^[59] The Portuguese presence ended in Bombay when the Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I captured Salsette in 1737, and Bassein in 1739.^[60] By the middle of the 18th century, Bombay began to grow into a major trading town, and received a huge influx of migrants from across India.^[61] Later, the British occupied Salsette on 28 December 1774. With the Treaty of Surat (1775), the British formally gained control of Salsette and Bassein, resulting in the First Anglo-Maratha War.^[62] The British were able to secure Salsette from the Marathas through the Treaty of Purandar (1776),^[63] and later through the Treaty of Salbai (1782), signed to settle the outcome of the First Anglo-Maratha War.^[64]

From 1782 onwards, the city was reshaped with large-scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass. This project, known as the Hornby Vellard, was completed by 1784.^[6] In 1817, the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone defeated Baji Rao II, the last of the Maratha Peshwa in the Battle of Kirkee.^[65] Following his defeat, almost the whole of the Deccan came under British suzerainty, and were incorporated in Bombay Presidency. The success of the British campaign in the Deccan witnessed the freedom of Bombay from all attacks by native powers.^[66] By 1845, the seven islands were coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard project.^[67] On 16 April 1853, India's first passenger railway line was established, connecting Bombay to the neighbouring town of Thane.^[68] During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the city became the world's chief cotton trading market, resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city's stature.^[69] The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea.^[70] In September 1896, Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week.^[71] About 850,000 people fled Bombay and the textile industry was adversely affected.^[72] As the capital of the Bombay Presidency, it witnessed the Indian independence movement, with the Quit India Movement in 1942 and the The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events.^[73][74] After India's independence in 1947, the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State. The area of Bombay State increased, after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into Bombay State. Subsequently, the city became the capital of Bombay State.^[75] On April 1950, Municipal limits of Bombay were expanded by merging the Bombay Suburban District and Bombay City to form Greater Bombay Municipal Corporation.^[76] The geographical limits of revenue district of Greater Bombay were coextensive with municipal limits of city of Greater Bombay. On 1 October 1990, the Greater Bombay district was bifurcated to form 2 revenue districts namely, Mumbai City & Mumbai Suburban, though they are administered by same Municipal Administration.^[77]

In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955, the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state.^[78] The States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra–Gujarat with Bombay as its capital in its 1955 report. Bombay Citizens' Committee, an advocacy group comprising of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Bombay's independent status.^[79] Following protests during the movement in which 105 people were killed by police, Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960.^[80][81] Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat.^[82] Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed between them.^[83] As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, Flora Fountain was renamed as Hutatma Chowk (Martyr's Square), and a memorial was erected.^[84]

The following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs. In the late 1960s, Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed.^[85] The Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA) was set up on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co-ordination of development activities in the Bombay metropolitan region.^[86] In August 1979, a sister township of New Bombay was founded by City and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDCO) across Thane and Raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of Bombay's population.^[87] The Jawaharlal Nehru Port, which currently handles 55–60% of India's containerized cargo, was commissioned on 26 May 1989 at Nhava Sheva with a view to de-congest Bombay Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city.^[88]

The past two decades have seen an increase in violence in the hitherto largely peaceful city. Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, the city was rocked by the Hindu-Muslim riots of 1992–93 in which more than 1,000 people were killed.^[89] On 12 March 1993, a series of 13 co-ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Bombay underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries.^[90] In 2006, 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city's commuter trains.^[91] In 2008, a series of ten coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths, 308 injuries, and severe damage to a couple of heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels.^[92] Today, Mumbai is the commercial capital of India and has evolved into a global financial hub.^[93] For several decades it has been the home of India's main financial services, and a focus for both infrastructure development and private investment.^[94] From being an ancient fishing community and a colonial centre of trade, Mumbai has become South Asia's largest city and home of the world's most prolific film industry.^[95]

. Geography

Mumbai is located at 18°58′30″N 72°49′33″E / 18.9750°N 72.8258°E / 18.9750; 72.8258 in the Indian state of Maharashtra.^[96] Mumbai consists of two distinct regions: Mumbai City district and Mumbai Suburban district, which form two separate revenue districts of Maharashtra.^[97] The city region is also commonly referred to as the Island City or South Mumbai.^[98] The total area of Mumbai is 603.4 km² (233 sq mi),^[99] with the area of 437.71 km² (169 sq mi), the island city spanning 67.79 km² (26 sq mi) and the suburban district spanning 370 km² (143 sq mi), coming under the administration of Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC), while remaining area belongs to Defence, Mumbai Port Trust, Atomic Energy Commission and Borivali National Park, which are out of the jurisdiction of the BMC.^[100]

Mumbai lies at the mouth of the Ulhas River on the western coast of India, in the coastal region known as the Konkan. It sits on Salsette Island, partially shared with the Thane district.^[101] Mumbai is surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the west.^[102] Many parts of the city lie just above sea level, with elevations ranging from 10 m (33 ft) to 15 m (49 ft);^[103] the city has an average elevation of 14 m (46 ft).^[104] Northern Mumbai (Salsette) is hilly,^[105] and the highest point in the city is 450 m (1,476 ft) at Salsette in the Powai-Kanheri ranges.^[106] Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Borivili National Park) is located partly in the Mumbai suburban district, and partly in the Thane district, and it extends over an area of 103.09 km² (39.80 sq mi).^[107]

Apart from the Bhatsa Dam, there are six major lakes that supply water to the city: Vihar, Lower Vaitarna, Upper Vaitarna, Tulsi, Tansa and Powai.^[108] Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake are located in Borivili National Park, within the city's limits.^[109] The supply from Powai lake, also within the city limits, is used only for agricultural and industrial purposes.^[110] Three small rivers, the Dahisar River, Poinsar (or Poisar) and Ohiwara (or Oshiwara) originate within the park, while the polluted Mithi River originates from Tulsi Lake and gathers water overflowing from Vihar and Powai Lakes.^[111] The coastline of the city is indented with numerous creeks and bays, stretching from Thane creek on the eastern to Madh Marve on the western front.^[112] The eastern coast of Salsette Island is covered with large mangrove swamps, rich in biodiversity, while the western coast is mostly sandy and rocky.^[113]

Soil cover in the city region is predominantly sandy due to its proximity to the sea. In the suburbs, the soil cover is largely alluvial and loamy.^[114] The underlying rock of the region is composed of black Deccan basalt flows, and their acidic and basic variants dating back to the late Cretaceous and early Eocene eras.^[115] Mumbai sits on a seismically active zone owing to the presence of 23 fault lines in the vicinity.^[116] The area is classified as a Seismic Zone III region,^[117] which means an earthquake of up to magnitude 6.5 on the Richter-scale may be expected.^[118]

. Climate

Mumbai has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate under the Köppen climate classification, with seven months of dryness and peak of rains in July.^[119] The cold season from December to February is followed by the summer season from March to June. The period from June to about the end of September constitutes the south-west monsoon season, and October and November form the post-monsoon season.^[120] Between June and September, the south west monsoon rains lash the city. Pre-monsoon showers are received in May. Occasionally, north-east monsoon showers occur in October and November. The maximum annual rainfall ever recorded was 3,452 millimetres (135.9 in) in 1954.^[121] The highest rainfall recorded in a single day was 944 millimetres (37.17 in) on 26 July 2005.^[122] The average total annual rainfall is 2,146.6 millimetres (84.51 in) in the Island City, and 2,457 millimetres (96.73 in) in the suburbs.^[121]

The average annual temperature is 27.2 °C (81.0 °F), and the average annual precipitation is 216.7 centimetres (85.31 in).^[123] In the Island City, the average maximum temperature is 31.2 °C (88.2 °F), while the average minimum temperature is 23.7 °C (74.7 °F). In the suburbs, the daily mean maximum temperature range from 29.1 °C (84.4 °F) to 33.3 °C (91.9 °F), while the daily mean minimum temperature ranges from 16.3 °C (61.3 °F) to 26.2 °C (79.2 °F).^[121] The record high is 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) on 28 March 1982,^[124] and the record low is 7.4 °C (45.3 °F) on 27 January 1962.^[125]